Administración Estados Unidos – DADA

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

– Человек Стратмора его нашел. Сьюзан, больше не в силах сдержать слезы, разрыдалась. – Да, – еле слышно сказала.  – Полагаю, что. ГЛАВА 111 В комнате оперативного управления раздался страшный крик Соши: – Акулы.

❿
 
 

❿

 

Windows 10 1703 download iso italianos humbled – windows 10 1703 download iso italianos humbled.By Dr. SAMUEL SMILES

 

It is to give an account of these people, as a supplement to my former book, that the present work is written. It is impossible to fix precisely the number of the p. It shakes one’s faith in history to observe the contradictory statements published with regard to French political or religious facts, even of recent date.

A general impression has long prevailed that there was a Massacre of St. Bartholemew in Paris in the year ; but even that has recently been denied, or softened down into a mere political squabble. It is not, however, possible to deny the fact that there was a Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in , though it has been vindicated as a noble act of legislation, worthy even of the reputation and character of Louis the Great.

No two writers agree as to the number of French citizens who were driven from their country by the Revocation. A learned Roman Catholic, Mr. Charles Butler, states that only 50, persons “retired” from France; whereas M. Capefigue, equally opposed to the Reformation, who consulted the population tables of the period although the intendants made their returns as small as possible in order to avoid the reproach of negligence , calculates the emigration at , souls, namely, 1, ministers, 2, elders, 15, gentlemen, the remainder consisting almost entirely of traders and artisans.

These returns, quoted by M. Capefigue, were made only a few years after the Revocation, although the emigration continued without intermission for many years later. Charles Coquerel says that whatever p. Bartholomew of , the persecutions which preceded and followed the Act of Revocation in , “kept France under a perpetual St.

Bartholomew for about sixty years. The Intendant of Saintonge, a King’s officer, not likely to exaggerate the number of emigrants, reported in , long before the emigration had ceased, that his province had lost , Reformers. Languedoc suffered far more; whilst Boulainvilliers reports that besides the emigrants who succeeded in making their escape, the province lost not fewer than , persons by premature death, the sword, strangulation, and the wheel. Then, with respect to the much larger number of Protestants who remained in France after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, there is the same difference p.

A deputation of Huguenot pastors and elders, who waited upon the Duc de Noailles in informed him that there were then 1,, Protestant families in France. Thirty years after that date, Louis XIV. After an interval of about seventy-five years, during which Protestantism though suppressed by the law contrived to lead a sort of underground life—the Protestants meeting by night, and sometimes by day, in caves, valleys, moors, woods, old quarries, hollow beds of rivers, or, as they themselves called it, “in the Desert”—they at length contrived to lift their heads into the light of day, and then Rabaut St.

Etienne stood up in the Constituent Assembly at Paris, in , and claimed the rights of his Protestant fellow-countrymen—the rights of “2,, useful citizens. After all the sufferings of France—after the cruelties to which her people have been subjected by p.

France was brought to ruin a century ago by the Jesuits who held the entire education of the country in their hands. They have again recovered their ground, and the Congreganistes are now what the Jesuits were before. The Sans-Culottes of were the pupils of the priests; so were the Communists of Edgar Quinet has recently said to his countrymen: “The Jesuitical and clerical spirit which has sneaked in among you and all your affairs has ruined you. It has corrupted the spring of life; it has delivered you over to the enemy Is this to last for ever?

For heaven’s sake spare us at least the sight of a Jesuits’ Republic as the coronation of our century. In the midst of these prophecies of ruin, we have M. Veuillot frankly avowing his Ultramontane policy in the Univers.

He is quite willing to go back to the old burnings, hangings, and quarterings, to prevent any freedom of opinion about religious matters. And I regret further that there has not been some prince sufficiently pious and politic to have made a crusade against the Protestants.

Veuillot is perhaps entitled to some respect for boldly speaking out what he means and thinks. Veuillot does, and would like to see the principles of free examination and individual liberty torn up root and branch.

With respect to the proposed crusade against Protestantism, it will be seen from the following work what the “pious and politic” Louis XIV. Louis XIV. The history of the Huguenots during the time of their submergence as an “underground church” is scarcely treated in the general histories of France. Courtly writers blot them out of history as Louis XIV. Most histories of France published in England contain little notice of them.

Those who desire to pursue the subject further, will obtain abundant information, more particularly from the following works:—. Antoine Court : Histoire des Troubles de Cevennes. Adolphe Michel : Louvois et Les Protestantes. London , October , Although the Revocation was the personal act of the King, it was nevertheless a popular measure, approved by the Catholic Church of France, and by the great body of the French people.

The King had solemnly sworn, at the beginning of his reign, to maintain, the tolerating Edict of Henry IV. The aged Chancellor, Le Tellier, was so overjoyed at the measure, that on affixing the great seal of France to the deed, he exclaimed, in the words of Simeon, “Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace, for mine eyes have seen the salvation.

Let our acclamations ascend to heaven, and let us say to this new Constantine, this new Theodosius, this new Marcian, this new Charlemagne, what the thirty-six fathers formerly said in the Council of Chalcedon: ‘You have affirmed the faith, you have exterminated the heretics; it is a work worthy of your reign, whose proper character it is.

Thanks to you, heresy is no more. God alone can have worked this marvel. King of heaven, preserve the King of earth: it is the prayer of the Church, it is the prayer of the Bishops.

Madame de Maintenon also received the praises of the Church. Cyr an institution founded by her , that “the cardinals and the bishops knew no other way of approaching the King save through her. But Louis XIV. People at court all spoke with immense praises of the King’s intentions with respect to destroying the Huguenots.

Madame de Maintenon wrote to the Duc de Noailles, “The soldiers are killing numbers of the fanatics—they hope soon to free Languedoc of them. She seems to have classed them with criminals or wild beasts. When residing in Low Brittany during a revolt against the Gabelle, a friend wrote to her, “How dull you must be! They have just taken twenty-four or thirty of these men, and are going to throw them off.

A few days after the Edict had been revoked, she wrote to her cousin Bussy, at Paris: “You have doubtless seen the Edict by which the King revokes that of Nantes. There is nothing so fine as that which it contains, and never has any King done, or ever will do, a more memorable act.

The wars which have been waged against them, and the St. Bartholomew, have given some reputation to the sect. De Baville, however, the Lieutenant of Languedoc, kept her in good heart. In one of his letters, he said, “I have this morning condemned seventy-six of these wretches Huguenots , and sent them to the galleys. Madame de Scuderi, also, more moderately rejoiced in the Act of Revocation.

Even the French Academy, though originally founded by a Huguenot, publicly approved the deed of Revocation. The Revocation was popular with the lower class, who went about sacking and pulling down the Protestant churches. They also tracked the Huguenots and their pastors, where they found them evading or breaking the Edict of Revocation; thus earning the praises of the Church and the fines offered by the King for their apprehension.

The provosts and sheriffs of Paris represented the popular feeling, by erecting a brazen statue of the King who had rooted out heresy; and they struck and distributed medals in honour of the great event. The Revocation was also popular with the dragoons. In order to “convert” the Protestants, the dragoons were unduly billeted upon them. As both officers and soldiers were then very badly paid, they were thereby enabled to live at free quarters. They treated everything in the houses they occupied as if it were their own, and an assignment of billets was little loss than the consignment of the premises to the military, to use for their own purposes, during the time they occupied them.

The Revocation was also approved by those who wished to buy land cheap. As the Huguenots were prevented holding their estates unless they conformed to the Catholic religion, and as many estates were p. Even before the Revocation, when the Huguenots were selling their land in order to leave the country, Madame de Maintenon wrote to her nephew, for whom she had obtained from the King a grant of , francs, “I beg of you carefully to use the money you are about to receive.

Estates in Poitou may be got for nothing; the desolation of the Huguenots will drive them to sell more. You may easily acquire extensive possessions in Poitou. The Revocation was especially gratifying to the French Catholic Church. The Pope, of course, approved of it. Te Deums were sung at Rome in thanksgiving for the forced conversion of the Huguenots. Pope Innocent XI. The Jesuits were especially elated by the Revocation. It enabled them to fill their schools and nunneries with the children of Protestants, who were compelled by law to pay for their education by Jesuit priests.

To furnish the required accommodation, nearly the whole of the Protestant temples that had not been pulled down were p. Even Bossuet, the “last father of the Church,” shared in the spoils of the Huguenots.

A few days after the Edict had been revoked, Bossuet applied for the materials of the temples of Nauteuil and Morcerf, situated in his diocese; and his Majesty ordered that they should be granted to him. Now that Protestantism had been put down, and the officers of Louis announced from all parts of the kingdom that the Huguenots were becoming converted by thousands, there was nothing but a clear course before the Jesuits in France.

For their religion was now the favoured religion of the State. It is true there were the Jansenists—declared to be heretical by the Popes, and distinguished for their opposition to the doctrines and moral teaching of the Jesuits—who were suffering from a persecution which then drove some of the members of Port Royal into exile, and eventually destroyed them. But even the Jansenists approved the persecution of the Protestants.

The great Arnault, their most illustrious interpreter, though in exile in the Low Countries, declared that though the means which Louis XIV. But Protestantism being declared destroyed, and Jansenism being in disgrace, there was virtually no legal religion in France but one—that of the Roman Catholic Church. Atheism, it is true, was tolerated, but then Atheism was not a religion.

The Atheists did not, like the Protestants, set up rival churches, or appoint rival ministers, and seek to draw people to their assemblies.

The Atheists, though they tacitly approved the religion of the King, had no opposition p. Hence it followed that the Court and the clergy had far more toleration for Atheism than for either Protestantism or Jansenism. It is authentically related that Louis XIV.

At the time of the Revocation, when the King and the Catholic Church were resolved to tolerate no religion other than itself, the Church had never seemed so powerful in France. It had a strong hold upon the minds of the people. Yet the uncontrolled and enormously increased power conferred upon the French Church at that time, most probably proved its greatest calamity.

Less than a hundred years after the Revocation, the Church had lost its influence over the people, and was despised. Not one of the clergy we have named, powerful orators though they were, ever ventured to call in question the cruelties with which the King sought to compel the Protestants to embrace the dogmas of their Church. There were no doubt many Catholics who deplored the force practised on the p. Some of them considered it an impious sacrilege to compel the Protestants to take the Catholic sacrament—to force them to accept the host, which Catholics believed to be the veritable body of Christ, but which the Huguenots could only accept as bread, over which some function had been performed by the priests, in whose miraculous power of conversion they did not believe.

The Duc de Saint-Simon, also a Jansenist, took the same view, which he embodied in his “Memoirs;” but these were kept secret by his family, and were not published for nearly a century after his death. Thus the Catholic Church remained triumphant. The Revocation was apparently approved by all, excepting the Huguenots. The King was flattered by the perpetual conversions reported to be going on throughout the country—five thousand persons in one place, ten thousand in another, who had abjured and taken the communion—at once, and sometimes “instantly.

He believed himself to have renewed the days of the preaching of the Apostles, and attributed to himself all the honour. The Bishops wrote panegyrics of him; the Jesuits made the pulpits resound with his praises He swallowed their poison in deep draughts.

He had therefore the fullest opportunity of observing the results of the policy he had pursued. He died in the hands of the Jesuits, his body covered with relics of the true cross.

Madame de Maintenon, the “famous and fatal witch,” as Saint-Simon called her, abandoned him at last; and the King died, lamented by no one. He had banished, or destroyed, during-his reign, about a million of his subjects, and those who remained did not respect him. Many regarded him as a self-conceited tyrant, who sought to save his own soul by inflicting penance on the backs of others. He loaded his kingdom with debt, and overwhelmed his people with taxes.

He destroyed the industry of France, which had been mainly supported by the Huguenots. Towards the end of his life he became generally hated; and while his heart was conveyed to the Grand Jesuits, his body, which was buried at St. Denis, was hurried to the grave accompanied by the execrations of the people. Yet the Church remained faithful to him to the last.

The great Massillon preached his funeral sermon; though the message was draped in the livery of the Court. Specious reasons of State!

In vain did you oppose to Louis the timid views of human wisdom, the body of the monarchy enfeebled by the flight of so many citizens, the course of trade slackened, either by the deprivation of their industry, or by the furtive removal of their wealth!

Dangers fortify his zeal. The work of God fears not man. He believes even p. The profane temples are destroyed, the pulpits of seduction are cast down. The prophets of falsehood are torn from their flocks. At the first blow dealt to it by Louis, heresy falls, disappears, and is reduced either to hide itself in the obscurity whence it issued, or to cross the seas, and to bear with it into foreign lands its false gods, its bitterness, and its rage.

Whatever may have been the temper which the Huguenots displayed when they were driven from France by persecution, they certainly carried with them something far more valuable than rage. They carried with them their virtue, piety, industry, and valour, which proved the source of wealth, spirit, freedom, and character, in all those countries—Holland, Prussia, England, and America—in which these noble exiles took refuge.

We shall next see whether the Huguenots had any occasion for entertaining the “rage” which the great Massillon attributed to them. The Revocation struck with civil death the entire Protestant population of France.

All the liberty of conscience which they had enjoyed under the Edict of Nantes, was swept away by the act of the King. They were deprived of every right and privilege; their social life was destroyed; their callings were proscribed; their property was liable to be confiscated at any moment; and they were subjected to mean, detestable, and outrageous cruelties. The only resource which remained to the latter was that of flying from their native country; and an immense number of persons took the opportunity of escaping from France.

The Edict of Revocation proclaimed that the Huguenot subjects of France must thenceforward be of “the King’s religion;” and the order was promulgated throughout the kingdom. The Prime Minister, Louvois, wrote to the provincial governors, “His Majesty desires that the severest rigour shall be shown to those who will not conform to His Religion, and those who seek the foolish glory of wishing to be the last, must be pushed to the utmost extremity. They were also forbidden, under the penalty of being sent to the galleys for life, to worship privately in their own homes.

If they were overheard singing their favourite psalms, they were liable to fine, imprisonment, or the galleys. They were compelled to hang out flags from their houses on the days of Catholic processions; but they were forbidden, under a heavy penalty, to look out of their windows when the Corpus Domini was borne along the streets.

The Huguenots were rigidly forbidden to instruct their children in their own faith. They were commanded to send them to the priest to be baptized and brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, under the penalty of five hundred livres fine in each case.

The boys were educated in Jesuit schools, the girls in nunneries, the parents being compelled to pay the required expenses; and where the parents were too poor to pay, the children were at once transferred to the general hospitals. A decree of the King, published in December, , ordered that every child of five years and upwards was to be taken possession of by the authorities, and removed from its Protestant parents.

This decree often proved a sentence of death, not only to the child, but to its parents. The whole of the Protestant temples throughout France were subject to demolition. The expelled pastors were compelled to evacuate the country within fifteen days. If, in the meantime, they were found performing their functions, they were liable to be sent to the galleys for life. If they undertook to marry Protestants, the marriages were declared illegal, and the children bastards.

If, after the expiry of the p. Protestants could neither be born, nor live, nor die, without state and priestly interference.

Protestant sages-femmes were not permitted to exercise their functions; Protestant doctors were prohibited from practising; Protestant surgeons and apothecaries were suppressed; Protestant advocates, notaries, and lawyers were interdicted; Protestants could not teach, and all their schools, public and private, were put down. Protestants were no longer employed by the Government in affairs of finance, as collectors of taxes, or even as labourers on the public roads, or in any other office.

Even Protestant grocers were forbidden to exercise their calling. There must be no Protestant librarians, booksellers, or printers. There was, indeed, a general raid upon Protestant literature all over France.

All Bibles, Testaments, and books of religious instruction, were collected and publicly burnt. There were bonfires in almost every town. At Metz, it occupied a whole day to burn the Protestant books which had been seized, handed over to the clergy, and condemned to be destroyed. Protestants were even forbidden to hire out horses, and Protestant grooms were forbidden to give riding lessons. Protestant domestics were forbidden to hire themselves as servants, and Protestant mistresses were forbidden to hire them under heavy penalties.

If they engaged Protestant servants, they were liable to be sent to the galleys for life. They were even prevented employing “new converts. Artisans were forbidden to work without certificates that their religion was Catholic. Protestant apprenticeships p. Protestant washerwomen were excluded from their washing-places on the river. In fact, there was scarcely a degradation that could be invented, or an insult that could be perpetrated, that was not practised upon those poor Huguenots who refused to be of “the King’s religion.

Even when Protestants were about to take refuge in death, their troubles were not over. The priests had the power of forcing their way into the dying man’s house, where they presented themselves at his bedside, and offered him conversion and the viaticum.

If the dying man refused these, he was liable to be seized after death, dragged from the house, pulled along the streets naked, and buried in a ditch, or thrown upon a dunghill. For several years before the Revocation, while the persecutions of the Huguenots had been increasing, many had realised their means, and fled abroad into Switzerland, Germany, Holland, and England. But after the Revocation, emigration from France was strictly forbidden, under penalty of confiscation of the whole goods and property of the emigrant.

Any person found attempting to leave the country, was liable to the seizure of all that belonged to him, and to perpetual imprisonment at the galleys; one half the amount realised by the sale of the property being paid to the informers, who thus became the most active agents of the Government.

The Act also ordered that all landed proprietors who had left France before the p. Amongst those of the King’s subjects who were the most ready to obey his orders were some of the old Huguenot noble families, such as the members of the houses of Bouillon, Coligny, Rohan, Tremouille, Sully, and La Force.

These great vassals, whom a turbulent feudalism had probably in the first instance induced to embrace Protestantism, were now found ready to change their profession of religion in servile obedience to the monarch. The lesser nobility were more faithful and consistent. Many of them abandoned their estates and fled across the frontier, rather than live a daily lie to God by forswearing the religion of their conscience. Others of this class, on whom religion sat more lightly, as the only means of saving their property from confiscation, pretended to be converted to Roman Catholicism; though, we shall find, that these “new converts,” as they were called, were treated with as much suspicion on the one side as they were regarded with contempt on the other.

There were also the Huguenot manufacturers, merchants, and employers of labour, of whom a large number closed their workshops and factories, sold off their goods, converted everything into cash, at whatever sacrifice, and fled across the frontier into Switzerland—either settling there, or passing through it on their way to Germany, Holland, or England.

It was necessary to stop this emigration, which was rapidly diminishing the population, and steadily impoverishing the country. It was indeed a terrible thing for Frenchmen, to tear themselves away from their country—Frenchmen, who have always clung so p. Yet, in a multitude of cases, they were compelled to tear themselves by the roots out of the France they so loved.

Yet it was so very easy for them to remain. The King merely required them to be “converted. Many of them were terrified, and conformed accordingly. Next day, another notice was issued to the Huguenot bourgeois, requiring them to assemble on the following day for the purpose of publicly making a declaration of their conversion.

The result of those measures was to make hypocrites rather than believers, and they took effect upon the weakest and least-principled persons. The strongest, most independent, and high-minded of the Huguenots, who would not be hypocrites, resolved passively to resist them, and if they could not be allowed to exercise freedom of conscience in their own country, they determined to seek it elsewhere.

Hence the large increase in the emigration from all parts of France immediately after the Act of Revocation had been proclaimed. They went in various forms and guises—sometimes in bodies of armed men, at other times in solitary parties, travelling at night and sleeping in the woods by day. They went as beggars, travelling merchants, sellers of beads and chaplets, gipsies, soldiers, shepherds, women with their faces dyed and sometimes dressed in men’s clothes, and in all manner of disguises.

To prevent this extensive emigration, more violent measures were adopted. Every road out of France was posted with guards. The towns, highways, bridges, and ferries, were all watched; and heavy rewards were promised to those who would stop and bring back the fugitives. Many were taken, loaded with irons, and dispatched by the most public roads through France—as a sight to be seen by other Protestants—to the galleys at Marseilles, Brest, and other ports.

As they went along they were subject to every sort of indignity in the towns and villages through which they passed. They were hooted, stoned, spit upon, and loaded with insult. Many others went by sea, in French as well as in foreign ships. Though the sailors of France were prohibited the exercise of the reformed religion, under the penalty of fines, corporal punishment, and seizure of the vessels where the worship was allowed, yet many of the emigrants contrived to get away by the help of French ship captains, masters of sloops, fishing-boats, and coast pilots—who most probably sympathized with the views of those who wished to fly their country rather than become hypocrites and forswear their religion.

A large number of emigrants, who went p. There were also many English ships that appeared off the coast to take the flying Huguenots away by night. They also escaped in foreign ships taking in their cargoes in the western harbours.

They got cooped up in casks or wine barraques, with holes for breathing places; others contrived to get surreptitiously into the hold, and stowed themselves away among the goods. When it became known to the Government that many Protestants were escaping in this way, provision was made to meet the case; and a Royal Order was issued that, before any ship was allowed to set sail for a foreign port, the hold should be fumigated with deadly gas, so that any hidden Huguenot who could not otherwise be detected, might thus be suffocated!

In the meantime, however, numerous efforts were being made to convert the Huguenots. The King, his ministers, the dragoons, the bishops, and clergy used all due diligence. It is the grandest and finest thing that has ever been imagined and executed. The conversions effected by the dragoons were much more sudden than those effected by the priests.

Sometimes a hundred or more persons were converted by a single troop within an hour. In this way Murillac converted thousands of persons in a week. The regiment p. De Noailles was very successful in his conversions. He converted Nismes in twenty-four hours; the day after he converted Montpellier; and he promised in a few weeks to deliver all Lower Languedoc from the leprosy of heresy.

In one of his dispatches soon after the Revocation, he boasted that he had converted nobility and gentry, 54 ministers, and 25, individuals of various classes. The quickness of the conversions effected by the dragoons is easily to be accounted for.

The principal cause was the free quartering of soldiers in the houses of the Protestants. The soldiers knew what was the object for which they were thus quartered. They lived freely in all ways. They drank, swore, shouted, beat the heretics, insulted their women, and subjected them to every imaginable outrage and insult.

One of their methods of making converts was borrowed from the persecutions of the Vaudois. It consisted in forcing the feet of the intended converts into boots full of boiling grease, or they would hang them up by the feet, sometimes forgetting to cut them down until they were dead.

They would also force them to drink water perpetually, or make them sit under a slow dripping upon their heads until they died of madness. Sometimes they placed burning coals in their hands, or used an instrument of torture resembling that known in Scotland as the thumbscrews. They were kept there without the usual allowance of straw, and almost without food. In winter they had no fire, and at night no lamp.

Though ill, they had no doctors. Besides the gaoler, their only visitors were priests and monks, entreating them to make abjuration. Of course many died in prison—feeble women, and aged and infirm men. In the society of obscene criminals, with whom many were imprisoned, they prayed for speedy deliverance by death, and death often came to their help.

More agreeable, but still more insulting, methods of conversion were also attempted. Louis tried to bribe the pastors by offering them an increase of annual pay beyond their former stipends.

If there were a Protestant judge or advocate, Louvois at once endeavoured to bribe him over. For instance, there was a heretical syndic of Strasbourg, to whom Louvois wrote, “Will you be converted?

I will give you 6, livres of pension. I will dismiss you. Of course many of the efforts made to convert the Huguenots proved successful. The orders of the Prime Minister, the free quarters afforded to the dragoons, the preachings and threatenings of the clergy, all contributed to terrify the Protestants.

The fear of being sent to the galleys for life—the threat of losing the whole of one’s goods and property—the alarm of seeing one’s household broken up, the children seized by the priests and sent to the nearest monkery or nunnery for maintenance and education—all these considerations doubtless had their effect in increasing the number of conversions.

Persecution is not easy to bear. To have all the powers and authorities employed against one’s p. And torture, whether it be slow or sudden, is what many persons, by reason of their physical capacity, have not the power to resist. Even the slow torment of dragoons quartered in the houses of the heretics—their noise and shoutings, their drinking and roistering, the insults and outrages they were allowed to practise—was sufficient to compel many at once to declare themselves to be converted.

Indeed, pain is, of all things, one of the most terrible of converters. One of the prisoners condemned to the galleys, when he saw the tortures which the victims about him had to endure by night and by day, said that sufferings such as these were “enough to make one conform to Buddhism or Mahommedanism as well as to Popery”; and doubtless it was force and suffering which converted the Huguenots, far more than love of the King or love of the Pope.

By all these means—forcible, threatening, insulting, and bribing—employed for the conversion of the Huguenots, the Catholics boasted that in the space of three months they had received an accession of five hundred thousand new converts to the Church of Rome. But the “new converts” did not gain much by their change. They were forced to attend mass, but remained suspected. Even the dragoons who converted them, called them dastards and deniers of their faith.

They tried, if they could, to avoid confession, but confess they must. There was the fine, confiscation of goods, and imprisonment at the priest’s back. Places were set apart for them in the churches, where they were penned up like lepers. A person was stationed at the door with a roll of their names, to which they were obliged to answer. During the service, p. They were also required to partake of the Host, which Protestants regarded as an awful mockery of the glorious Godhead.

Such is the general abomination born of flattery and cruelty. On analysing Burton water it was found to contain a considerable quantity of calcium sulphate—gypsum—and of other calcium and magnesium salts, and it is now a well-known fact that good bitter ales cannot be brewed except with waters containing these substances in sufficient quantities.

Similarly, good mild ale waters should contain a certain quantity of sodium chloride, and waters for stout very little mineral matter, excepting perhaps the carbonates of the alkaline earths, which are precipitated on boiling. The following analyses from W.

Sykes, The Principles and Practice of Brewing are fairly illustrative of typical brewing waters. Our knowledge of the essential chemical constituents of brewing waters enables brewers in many cases to treat an unsatisfactory supply artificially in such a manner as to modify its character in a favourable sense.

Thus, if a soft water only is to hand, and it is desired to brew a bitter ale, all that is necessary is to add a sufficiency of gypsum, magnesium sulphate and calcium chloride. If it is desired to convert a soft water lacking in chlorides into a satisfactory mild ale liquor, the addition of grains of sodium chloride will be necessary.

On the other hand, to convert a hard water into a soft supply is scarcely feasible for brewing purposes. To the substances used for treating brewing liquors already mentioned we may add kainite, a naturally deposited composite salt containing potassium and magnesium sulphates and magnesium chloride.

Malt Substitutes. The quantity of the latter employed was , cwt. At the same time other substitutes, such as unmalted corn and preparations of rice and maize, had come into favour, the quantity of these substances used being in , bushels of unmalted corn and 1,, cwt. The following statistics with regard to the use of malt substitutes in the United Kingdom are not without interest.

The causes which have led to the largely increased use of substitutes in the United Kingdom are of a somewhat complex nature. In the first place, it was not until the malt tax was repealed that the brewer was able to avail himself of the surplus diastatic energy present in malt, for the purpose of transforming starch other than that in malted grain into sugar.

The diastatic enzyme or ferment see below, under Mashing of malted barley is present in that material in great excess, and a part of this surplus energy may be usefully employed in converting the starch of unmalted grain into sugar. The brewer has found also that brewing operations are simplified and accelerated by the use of a certain proportion of substitutes, and that he is thereby enabled appreciably to increase his turn-over, i. Certain classes of substitutes, too, are somewhat cheaper than malt, and in view of the keenness of modern competition it is not to be wondered at that the brewer should resort to every legitimate means at his disposal to keep down costs.

It has been contended, and apparently with much reason, that if the use of substitutes were prohibited this would not lead to an increased use of domestic barley, inasmuch as the supply of home barley suitable for malting purposes is of a limited nature. At the same time, it is an undoubted fact that an excessive use of substitutes leads to the production of beer of poor quality.

The maize and rice preparations mostly used in England are practically starch pure and simple, substantially the whole of the oil, water, and other subsidiary constituents of the grain being removed. The germ of maize contains a considerable proportion of an oil of somewhat unpleasant flavour, which has to be eliminated before the material is fit for use in the mash-tun.

After degerming, the maize is unhusked, wetted, submitted to a temperature sufficient to rupture the starch cells, dried, and finally rolled out in a flaky condition. Rice is similarly treated. The sugars used are chiefly cane sugar, glucose and invert sugar—the latter commonly known as “saccharum. Invert sugar is prepared by the action either of acid or of yeast on cane sugar. The chemical equation representing the conversion or inversion of cane sugar is:—.

Invert sugar is so called because the mixture of glucose and fructose which forms the “invert” is laevo-rotatory, whereas cane sugar is dextro-rotatory to the plane of polarized light. The preparation of invert sugar by the acid process consists in treating the cane sugar in solution with a little mineral acid, removing the excess of the latter by means of chalk, and concentrating to a thick syrup.

The yeast process Tompson’s , which makes use of the inverting power of one of the enzymes invertase contained in ordinary yeast, is interesting. When this operation is completed, the whole liquid including the yeast is run into the boiling contents of the copper. This method is more suited to the preparation of invert in the brewery itself than the acid process, which is almost exclusively used in special sugar works.

Glucose, which is one of the constituents of invert sugar, is largely used by itself in brewing. It is, however, never prepared from invert sugar for this purpose, but directly from starch by means of acid. By the action of dilute boiling acid on starch the latter is rapidly converted first into a mixture of dextrine and maltose and then into glucose. The proportions of glucose, dextrine and maltose present in a commercial glucose depend very much on the duration of the boiling, the strength of the acid, and the extent of the pressure at which the starch is converted.

In England the materials from which glucose is manufactured are generally sago, rice and purified maize. In Germany potatoes form the most common raw material, and in America purified Indian corn is ordinarily employed.

Hop substitutes , as a rule, are very little used. They mostly consist of quassia, gentian and camomile, and these substitutes are quite harmless per se , but impart an unpleasantly rough and bitter taste to the beer. The light beers in vogue to-day are less alcoholic, more lightly hopped, and more quickly brewed than the beers of the last generation, and in this respect are somewhat less stable and more likely to deteriorate than the latter were. The preservative in part replaces the alcohol and the hop extract, and shortens the brewing time.

The preservatives mostly used are the bisulphites of lime and potash, and these, when employed in small quantities, are generally held to be harmless. Brewing Operations. The malt, which is hoisted to the top floor, after cleaning and grading is conveyed to the Malt Mill , where it is crushed. Thence the ground malt, or “grist” as it is now called, passes to the Grist Hopper , and from the latter to the Mashing Machine , in which it is intimately mixed with hot water from the Hot Liquor Vessel.

From the mashing machine the mixed grist and “liquor” pass to the Mash-Tun , where the starch of the malt is rendered soluble. From the mash-tun the clear wort passes to the Copper , where it is boiled with hops. From the copper the boiled wort passes to the Hop Back , where the insoluble hop constituents are separated from the wort. From the hop back the wort passes to the Cooler , from the latter to the Refrigerator , thence for the purpose of enabling the revenue officers to assess the duty to the Collecting Vessel , [4] and finally to the Fermenting Vessels , in which the wort is transformed into “green” beer.

The latter is then cleansed, and finally racked and stored. It will be seen from the above that brewing consists of seven distinct main processes, which may be classed as follows: 1 Grinding; 2 Mashing; 3 Boiling; 4 Cooling; 5 Fermenting; 6 Cleansing; 7 Racking and Storing.

The mills, which exist in a variety of designs, are of the smooth roller type, and are so arranged that the malt is crushed rather than ground.

If the malt is ground too fine, difficulties arise in regard to efficient drainage in the mash-tun and subsequent clarification. On the other hand, if the crushing is too coarse the subsequent extraction of soluble matter in the mash-tun is incomplete, and an inadequate yield results. Mashing is a process which consists mainly in extracting, by means of water at an adequate temperature, the soluble matters pre-existent in the malt, and in converting the insoluble starch and a great part of the insoluble nitrogenous compounds into soluble and partly fermentable products.

Mashing is, without a doubt, the most important of the brewing processes, for it is largely in the mash-tun that the character of the beer to be brewed is determined. In modern practice the malt and the mashing “liquor” i. This is generally a cylindrical metal vessel, commanding the mash-tun and provided with a central shaft and screw. The grist as the crushed malt is called enters the mashing machine from the grist case above, and the liquor is introduced at the back.

The screw is rotated rapidly, and so a thorough mixture of the grist and liquor takes place as they travel along the mashing machine. The mash-tun fig. This arrangement is necessary in order to obtain a proper separation of the “wort” as the liquid portion of the finished mash is called from the spent grains.

The mash-tun is also provided with a stirring apparatus the rakes so that the grist and liquor may be intimately mixed D , and an automatic sprinkler, the sparger fig. The sparger consists of a number of hollow arms radiating from a common centre and pierced by a number of small perforations. The common central vessel from which the sparge-arms radiate is mounted in such a manner that it rotates automatically when a stream of water is admitted, so that a constant fine spray covers the whole tun when the sparger is in operation.

There are also pipes for admitting “liquor” to the bottom of the tun, and for carrying the wort from the latter to the “underback” or “copper. The grist and liquor having been introduced into the tun either by means of the mashing machine or separately , the rakes are set going, so that the mash may become thoroughly homogeneous, and after a short time the rakes are stopped and the mash allowed to rest, usually for a period of about two hours.

After this, “taps are set”— i. In this manner the whole of the wort or extract is separated from the grains. The quantity of water employed is, in all, from two to three barrels to the quarter lb of malt.

In considering the process of mashing, one might almost say the process of brewing, it is essential to remember that the type and quality of the beer to be produced see Malt depends almost entirely a on the kind of malt employed, and b on the mashing temperature.

In other words, quality may be controlled on the kiln or in the mash-tun, or both. Viewed in this light, the following theoretical methods for preparing different types of beer are possible:— 1 high kiln heats and high mashing temperatures; 2 high kiln heats and low mashing temperatures; 3 low kiln heats and high mashing temperatures; and 4 low kiln heats and low mashing temperatures.

In practice all these combinations, together with many intermediate ones, are met with, and it is not too much to say that the whole science of modern brewing is based upon them.

It is plain, then, that the mashing temperature will depend on the kind of beer that is to be produced, and on the kind of malt employed. The effect of higher temperatures is chiefly to cripple the enzyme or “ferment” diastase, which, as already said, is the agent which converts the insoluble starch into soluble dextrin, sugar and intermediate products.

The higher the mashing temperature, the more the diastase will be crippled in its action, and the more dextrinous non-fermentable matter as compared with maltose fermentable sugar will be formed. A pale or stock ale, which is a type of beer that must be “dry” and that will keep, requires to contain a relatively high proportion of dextrin and little maltose, and, in its preparation, therefore, a high mashing temperature will be employed. On the other hand, a mild running ale, which is a full, sweet beer, intended for rapid consumption, will be obtained by means of low mashing temperatures, which produce relatively little dextrin, but a good deal of maltose, i.

Diastase is not the only enzyme present in malt. There is also a ferment which renders a part of the nitrogenous matter soluble. This again is affected by temperature in much the same way as diastase. Low heats tend to produce much non-coagulable [v. With regard to the kind of malt and other materials employed in producing various types of beer, pale ales are made either from pale malt generally a mixture of English and fine foreign, such as Smyrna, California only, or from pale malt and a little flaked maize, rice, invert sugar or glucose.

Running beers mild ale are made from a mixture of pale and amber malts, sugar and flaked goods; stout, from a mixture of pale, amber and roasted black malts only, or with the addition of a little sugar or flaked maize. When raw grain is employed, the process of mashing is slightly modified. The maize, rice or other grain is usually gelatinized in a vessel called a converter or cooker entirely separated from the mash-tun, by means of steam at a relatively high temperature, mostly with, but occasionally without, the addition of some malt meal.

After about half an hour the gelatinized mass is mixed with the main mash, and this takes place shortly before taps are set. This is possible inasmuch as the starch, being already in a highly disintegrated condition, is very rapidly converted. By working on the limited-decoction system see below , it is possible to make use of a fair percentage of raw grain in the mash-tun proper, thus doing away with the “converter” entirely.

The Filter Press Process. This entails loss of extract in several ways. To begin with, the sparging process is at best a somewhat inefficient method for washing out the last portions of the wort, and again, when the malt is at all hard or “steely,” starch conversion is by no means complete.

These disadvantages are overcome by the filter press process, which was first introduced into Great Britain by the Belgian engineer P. The malt, in this method of brewing, is ground quite fine, and although an ordinary mash-tun may be used for mashing, the separation of the clear wort from the solid matter takes place in the filter press, which retains the very finest particles with ease.

It is also a simple matter to wash out the wort from the filter cake in the presses, and experience has shown that markedly increased yields are thus obtained. In the writer’s opinion, there is little doubt that in the future this, or a similar process, will find a very wide application. If it is not possible to arrange the plant so that the coppers are situated beneath the mash-tuns as is the case in breweries arranged on the gravitation system , an intermediate collecting vessel the underback is interposed, and from this the wort is pumped into the copper.

The latter is a large copper vessel heated by direct fire or steam. Modern coppers are generally closed in with a dome-shaped head, but many old-fashioned open coppers are still to be met with, in fact pale-ale brewers prefer open coppers. In the closed type the wort is frequently boiled under slight pressure.

When the wort has been raised to the boil, the hops or a part thereof are added, and the boiling is continued generally from an hour to three hours, according to the type of beer.

At least three distinct substances are extracted from the hops in boiling. First, the hop tannin , which, combining with a part of the proteids derived from the malt, precipitates them; second, the hop resin , which acts as a preservative and bitter; third, the hop oil , to which much of the fine aroma of beer is due.

The latter is volatile, and it is customary, therefore, not to add the whole of the hops to the wort when it commences to boil, but to reserve about a third until near the end of the copper stage. The quantity of hops employed varies according to the type of beer, from about 3 lb to 15 lb per quarter lb of malt.

For mild ales and porters about 3 to 4 lb, for light pale ales and light stouts 6 to 10 lb, and for strong ales and stouts 9 to 15 lb of hops are employed. A hop back is a wooden or metal vessel, fitted with a false bottom of perforated plates; the latter retain the spent hops, the wort being drawn off into the coolers. After resting for a brief period in the hop back, the bright wort is run into the coolers.

The cooler is a very shallow vessel of great area, and the result of the exposure of the hot wort to a comparatively large volume of air is that a part of the hop constituents and other substances contained in the wort are rendered insoluble and are precipitated. It was formerly considered absolutely essential that this hot aeration should take place, but in many breweries nowadays coolers are not used, the wort being run direct from the hop back to the refrigerator.

There is much to be said for this procedure, as the exposure of hot wort in the cooler is attended with much danger of bacterial and wild yeast infection, but it is still a moot point whether the cooler or its equivalent can be entirely dispensed with for all classes of beers. A rational alteration would appear to be to place the cooler in an air-tight chamber supplied with purified and sterilized air. This principle has already been applied to the refrigerator, and apparently with success.

In America the cooler is frequently replaced by a cooling tank, an enclosed vessel of some depth, capable of artificial aeration. It is not practicable, in any case, to cool the wort sufficiently on the cooler to bring it to the proper temperature for the fermentation stage, and for this purpose, therefore, the refrigerator is employed.

There are several kinds of refrigerators, the main distinction being that some are vertical, others horizontal; but the principle in each case is much the same, and consists in allowing a thin film or stream of wort to trickle over a series of pipes through which cold water circulates.

By the action of living yeast cells see Fermentation the sugar contained in the wort is split up into alcohol and carbonic acid, and a number of subsidiary reactions occur.

There are two main systems of fermentation, the top fermentation system, which is that employed in the United Kingdom, and the bottom fermentation system, which is that used for the production of beers of the continental “lager” type.

After a few hours a slight froth or scum makes its appearance on the surface of the liquid. At the end of a further short period this develops into a light curly mass cauliflower or curly head , which gradually becomes lighter and more solid in appearance, and is then known as rocky head. This in its turn shrinks to a compact mass—the yeasty head —which emits great bubbles of gas with a hissing sound. At this point the cleansing of the beer— i. A In a the Skimming System the fermentation from start to finish takes place in wooden vessels termed “squares” or “rounds” , fitted with an attemperator and a parachute or other similar skimming device for removing or “skimming” the yeast at the end of the fermentation fig.

The principle of b the Dropping System is that the beer undergoes only the main fermentation in the “round” or “square,” and is then dropped down into a second vessel or vessels, in which fermentation and cleansing are completed.

The ponto system of dropping, which is now somewhat old-fashioned, consists in discharging the beer into a series of vat-like vessels, fitted with a peculiarly-shaped overflow lip. The yeast works its way out of the vessel over the lip, and then flows into a gutter and is collected. The pontos are kept filled with beer by means of a vessel placed at a higher level.

In the ordinary dropping system the partly fermented beer is let down from the “squares” and “rounds” into large vessels, termed dropping or skimming “backs.

As a rule the parachute covers the whole width of the back. A series of casks, supplied with beer at the cleansing stage from a feed vessel, are mounted so that they may rotate axially. Each cask is fitted with an attemperator, a pipe and cock at the base for the removal of the finished beer and “bottoms,” and lastly with a swan neck fitting through a bung-hole and commanding a common gutter.

This system yields excellent results for certain classes of beers, and many Burton brewers think it is essential for obtaining [v. B The Stone Square System , which is only used to a certain extent exclusively in the north of England , practically consists in pumping the fermenting wort from one to the other of two superimposed square vessels, connected with one another by means of a man-hole and a valve.

These squares are built of stone and kept very cool. At the end of the fermentation the yeast after closing the man-hole is removed from the top square. It is usual to add some hops in cask this is called dry hopping in the case of many of the better beers.

Running beers, which must be put into condition rapidly, or beers that have become flat, are generally primed. Priming consists in adding a small quantity of sugar solution to the beer in cask. This rapidly ferments and so produces “condition. Finings generally consist of a solution or semi-solution of isinglass in sour beer, or in a solution of tartaric acid or of sulphurous acid. After the finings are added to the beer and the barrels have been well rolled, the finings slowly precipitate or work out through the bung-hole and carry with them the matter which would otherwise render the beer turbid.

It is generally admitted that the special brew, matured by storage and an adequate secondary fermentation, produces the best beer for bottling, but the modern taste for a very light and bright bottled beer at a low cost has necessitated the introduction of new methods.

The most interesting among these is the “chilling” and “carbonating” system. In this the beer, when it is ripe for racking, is first “chilled,” that is, cooled to a very low temperature. As a result, there is an immediate deposition of much matter which otherwise would require prolonged time to settle.

The beer is then filtered and so rendered quite bright, and finally, in order to produce immediate “condition,” is “carbonated,” i. Foreign Brewing and Beers. The Dickmaische , as this portion is called, is then raised to the boil, and the ebullition sustained between a quarter and three-quarters of an hour.

The wort, after boiling with hops and cooling, much as in the English system, is subjected to the peculiar system of fermentation called bottom fermentation.

In this system the “pitching” and fermentation take place at a very low temperature and, compared with the English system, in very small vessels. The yeast, which is of a different type from that employed in the English system, remains at the bottom of the fermenting tun, and hence is derived the name of “bottom fermentation” see Fermentation.

The primary fermentation lasts about eleven to twelve days as compared with three days on the English system , and the beer is then run into store lager casks where it remains at a temperature approaching the freezing-point of water for six weeks to six months, according to the time of the year and the class of the beer. As to the relative character and stability of decoction and infusion beers, the latter are, as a rule, more alcoholic; but the former contain more unfermented malt extract, and are therefore, broadly speaking, more nutritive.

Beers of the German type are less heavily hopped and more peptonized than English beers, and more highly charged with carbonic acid, which, owing to the low fermentation and storing temperatures, is retained for a comparatively long time and keeps the beer in condition. On the other hand, infusion beers are of a more stable and stimulating character. It is impossible to keep “lager” beer on draught in the ordinary sense of the term in England.

It will not keep unless placed on ice, and, as a matter of fact, the “condition” of lager is dependent to a far greater extent on the methods of distribution and storage than is the case with infusion beers.

If a cask is opened it must be rapidly consumed; indeed it becomes undrinkable within a very few hours. The gas escapes rapidly when the pressure is released, the temperature rises, and the beer becomes flat and mawkish. In Germany every publican is bound to have an efficient supply of ice, the latter frequently being delivered by the brewery together with the beer. In America the common system of brewing is one of infusion mashing combined with bottom fermentation.

The method of mashing, however, though on infusion lines, differs appreciably from the English process. The very low initial heat, and the employment of relatively large quantities of readily transformable malt adjuncts, enable the American brewer to make use of a class of malt which would be considered quite unfit for brewing in an English brewery.

The system of fermentation is very similar to the continental “lager” system, and the beer obtained bears some resemblance to the German product. To the English palate it is somewhat flavourless, but it is always retailed in exceedingly brilliant condition and at a proper temperature. There can be little doubt that every nation evolves a type of beer most suited to its climate and the temperament of the people, and in this respect the modern American beer is no exception.

In regard to plant and mechanical arrangements generally, the modern American breweries may serve as an object-lesson to the European brewer, although there are certainly a number of breweries in the United Kingdom which need not fear comparison with the best American plants. It is a sign of the times and further evidence as to the growing taste for a lighter type of beer, that lager brewing in its most modern form has now fairly taken root in Great Britain, and in this connexion the process introduced by Messrs Allsopp exhibits many features of interest.

The following is a brief description of the plant and the methods employed:—The wort is prepared on infusion lines, and is then cooled by means of refrigerated brine before passing to a temporary store tank, which serves as a gauging vessel. From the latter the wort passes directly to the fermenting tuns, huge closed cylindrical vessels made of sheet-steel and coated with glass enamel. There the wort ferments under reduced pressure, the carbonic acid generated being removed by means of a vacuum pump, and the gas thus withdrawn is replaced by the introduction of cool sterilized air.

The yeast employed is a pure culture see Fermentation bottom yeast, but the withdrawal of the products of yeast metabolism and the constant supply of pure fresh air cause the fermentation to proceed far more rapidly than is the case with lager beer brewed on ordinary lines. It is, in fact, finished in about six days. The gases evolved are allowed to collect under pressure, so that the beer is thoroughly charged with the carbonic acid necessary to give it condition.

Finally the beer is again cooled, filtered, racked and bottled, the whole of these operations taking place under counter pressure, so that no gas can escape; indeed, from the time the wort leaves the copper to the moment when it is bottled in the shape of beer, it does not come into contact with the outer air.

The first stage consists in the preparation of Koji , which is obtained by treating steamed rice with a culture of Aspergillus oryzae. This micro-organism converts the starch into sugar. The Koji is converted into moto by adding it to a thin paste of fresh-boiled starch in a vat. Fermentation is set up and lasts for 30 to 40 days.

The third stage consists in adding more rice and Koji to the moto , together with some water. A secondary fermentation, lasting from 8 to 10 days, ensues. The interest of this process consists in the fact that a single micro-organism—a mould—is able to exercise the combined functions of saccharification and fermentation. It replaces the diastase of malted grain and also the yeast of a European brewery.

Another liquid of interest is Weissbier. This, which is largely produced in Berlin and in some respects resembles the wheat-beer produced in parts of England , is generally prepared from a mash of three parts of wheat malt and one part of barley malt.

The fermentation is of a symbiotic nature, two organisms, namely a yeast and a fission fungus the lactic acid bacillus taking part in it. The preparation of this peculiar double ferment is assisted by the addition of a certain quantity of white wine to the yeast prior to fermentation. Brewing Chemistry. Alike in following the growth of barley in field, its harvesting, maturing and conversion into malt, as well as the operations of mashing malt, fermenting wort, and conditioning beer, physiological chemistry is needed.

On the other hand, the consideration of the saline matter in waters, the composition of the extract of worts and beers, and the analysis of brewing materials and products generally, belong to the domain of pure chemistry. Since the extractive matters contained in wort and beer consist for the most part of the transformation products of starch, it is only natural that these should have received special attention at the hands of scientific men associated with the brewing industry.

It was formerly believed that by the action of diastase on starch the latter is first converted into a gummy substance termed dextrin, which is then subsequently transformed into a sugar—glucose.

Musculus, however, in , showed that sugar and dextrin are simultaneously produced, and between the years and Cornelius O’Sullivan definitely proved that the sugar produced was maltose. When starch-paste, the jelly formed by treating starch with boiling water, is mixed with iodine solution, a deep blue coloration results.

The first product of starch degradation by either acids or diastase, namely soluble starch, also exhibits the same coloration when treated with iodine. As degradation proceeds, and the products become more and more soluble and diffusible, the blue reaction with iodine gives place first to a purple, then to a reddish colour, and finally the coloration ceases altogether.

In the same way, the optical rotating power decreases, and the cupric reducing power towards Fehling’s solution increases, as the process of hydrolysis proceeds.

O’Sullivan was the first to point out definitely the influence of the temperature of the mash on the character of the products.

The work of Horace T. Brown with J. Heron extended that of O’Sullivan, and with G. Morris established the presence of an intermediate product between the higher dextrins and maltose. This product was termed maltodextrin, and Brown and Morris were led to believe that a large number of these substances existed in malt wort. They proposed for these substances the generic name “amyloins. On the assumption of the existence of these compounds, Brown and his colleagues formulated what is known as the maltodextrin or amyloin hypothesis of starch degradation.

Lintner, in , claimed to have separated a sugar, isomeric with maltose, which is termed isomaltose, from the products of starch hydrolysis. Ling and J. Baker, as well as Brown and Morris, in , proved that this isomaltose was not a homogeneous substance, and evidence tending to the same conclusion was subsequently brought forward by continental workers. They also separated a substance, C 12 H 22 O 11 , isomeric with maltose, which had, however, the characteristics of a dextrin.

This is probably identical with the so-called dextrinose isolated by V. It has been proved by H. The theory of Brown and Morris of the degradation of starch, although based on experimental evidence of some weight, is by no means universally accepted.

Nevertheless it is of considerable interest, as it offers a rational and consistent explanation of the phenomena known to accompany the transformation of starch by diastase, and even if not strictly correct it has, at any rate, proved itself to be a practical working hypothesis, by which the mashing and fermenting operations may be regulated and controlled.

According to Brown and Morris, the starch molecule consists of five amylin groups, each of which corresponds to the molecular formula C 12 H 20 O 10 Four of these amylin radicles are grouped centrally round the fifth, thus:—. By the action of diastase, this complex molecule is split up, undergoing hydrolysis into four groups of amyloins, the fifth or central group remaining unchanged and under brewing conditions unchangeable , forming the substance known as stable dextrin.

When diastase acts on starch-paste, hydrolysis proceeds as far as the reaction represented by the following equation:—. The amyloins are substances containing varying numbers of amylin original starch or dextrin groups in conjunction with a proportional number of maltose groups. They are not separable into maltose and dextrin by any of the ordinary means, but exhibit the properties of mixtures of these substances. As the process of hydrolysis proceeds, the amyloins become gradually poorer in amylin and relatively richer in maltose-groups.

The final products of transformation, according to Brown and J. Millar, are maltose and glucose, which latter is derived from the hydrolysis of the stable dextrin. This theory may be applied in practical brewing in the following manner.

If it is desired to obtain a beer of a stable character—that is to say, one containing a considerable proportion of high-type amyloins—it is necessary to restrict the action of the diastase in the mash-tun accordingly.

On the other hand, for mild running ales, which are to “condition” rapidly, it is necessary to provide for the presence of sufficient maltodextrin of a low type. Investigation has shown that the type of maltodextrin can be regulated, not only in the mash-tun but also on the malt-kiln.

A higher type is obtained by low kiln and high mashing temperatures than by high kiln and low mashing heats, and it is possible therefore to regulate, on scientific lines, not only the quality but also the type of amyloins which are suitable for a particular beer. The chemistry of the nitrogenous constituents of malt is equally important with that of starch and its transformations.

Without nitrogenous compounds of the proper type, vigorous fermentations are not possible. It may be remembered that yeast assimilates nitrogenous compounds in some of their simpler forms—amides and the like.

One of the aims of the maltster is, therefore, to break down the protein substances present in barley to such a degree that the wort has a maximum nutritive value for the yeast.

Further, it is necessary for the production of stable beer to eliminate a large proportion of nitrogenous matter, and this is only done by the yeast when the proteins are degraded.

There is also some evidence that the presence of albumoses assists in producing the foaming properties of beer. It has now been established definitely, by the work of A. Fernbach, W. Windisch, F. Weiss and P. Schidrowitz, that finished malt contains at least two proteolytic enzymes a peptic and a pancreatic enzyme. The hot wort trickles over the outside of the series of pipes, and is cooled by the cold water which circulates in them.

From the shallow collecting trays the cooled wort is conducted to the fermenting backs. The presence of different types of phosphates in malt, and the important influence which, according to their nature, they exercise in the brewing process by way of the enzymes affected by them, have been made the subject of research mainly by Fernbach and A. Hubert, and by P.

Petit and G. The number of enzymes which are now known to take part in the brewing process is very large. They may with utility be grouped as follows:—. Lintner, Grundriss der Bierbrauerei Berlin, ; J. Robertplume 8 sierpnia Robertplume 9 sierpnia EdwardGepsy 14 sierpnia ForexPidly 23 stycznia BrandonDeeri 21 marca ForexPidly 29 marca ForexPidly 15 kwietnia PkudLanknuri 9 czerwca DoiiLanknuri 10 czerwca DraiLanknuri 11 czerwca GregLanknuri 21 czerwca SregLanknuri 21 czerwca SobiLanknuri 27 czerwca DacLanknuri 4 lipca HusajnLanknuri 15 lipca Josephadorp 25 sierpnia K0tflgLanknuri 1 listopada G4zy4gLanknuri 1 listopada Chwo8oLanknuri 1 listopada Alkr5eLanknuri 1 listopada An1b4qLanknuri 1 listopada G4zy4gLanknuri 2 listopada Fhwo8oLanknuri 2 listopada Glkr5eLanknuri 2 listopada Kn1b4qLanknuri 2 listopada F4zy4gLanknuri 3 listopada I8ks1mLanknuri 3 listopada Dhwo8oLanknuri 3 listopada Klkr5eLanknuri 3 listopada Dn1b4qLanknuri 3 listopada K4zy4gLanknuri 4 listopada Ghwo8oLanknuri 4 listopada AlyboyLanknuri 4 listopada Hlkr5eLanknuri 4 listopada Gn1b4qLanknuri 4 listopada ErnestWeele 5 listopada Jt9d9mLanknuri 5 listopada D4zy4gLanknuri 5 listopada B0tflgLanknuri 6 listopada Carmenwhish 6 listopada H8ks1mLanknuri 7 listopada GlyboyLanknuri 9 listopada At9d9mLanknuri 14 listopada

❿
 
 

❿