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I want to raise as much as I can to contribute in the 15k goal established by WWF, running with the names of all donors on my t-shirt on the race day. Other churches, religious associations and new religious movements also made use of the progressive liberalization. Thanks to American, European and Asian gurus, teach- ers or missionaries, Eastern religions — Buddhist schools6 and contemporary strands of Hinduism7 — found their followers.

Various forms of new spirituality New Age came into existence as well as the phenomena combining religion, medicine, science, art or ecology, which fall outside the traditional classification of religious studies, although they play a similar role in the life of its members as historical religions. Under the influence of contact, es- pecially with Pentecostals, there were occurrences of defections from the Catholic Church by a few groups of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal, which were subse- quently registered as autonomic religious associations8.

In there were Churches and religious associations outside the Ro- man Catholic Church entered in the register of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration, all of which act on equal terms as well as registered on the basis of separate laws. The numbers in total show the scale of religious plu- ralism in Poland.

The right to establish new religious associations is granted ex- clusively to Polish citizens. Entry into the register is obtained after the approval of an adequate application submitted to the Department for Denominations and Na- tional and Ethnic Minorities of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration, signed by at least adult Polish citizens who have the capacity to perform acts in law A necessary requirement to be fulfilled is a correctly phrased statute, which should define: 1.

The proper name of the church or religious association; 2. The area of activity and the registered address of its authorities; 3.

The aims of activity and forms of conducting it; 4. Membership rules; 5. The rights and obligations of members and the procedure and consequences of cessation of membership; 6. Governing bodies — the way of appointing and dismissing them, the scope of competence as well as the procedure of decision-making; 7.

Sources of financing; 8. The procedure of introducing changes to the statute; 9. The way of representing the association outside as well as incurring liabilities; The rules of appointing as well as the competence of spiritual persons; The conditions of the termina- tion of a religious association and the form of expending the remaining capital.

When the association is a part of an international organization, the statute should include information on the form of mutual connections and relationship. If establishing minor entities orders, churches, congregations, etc. Since January this limit has been raised to people pursuant to the resolution of the Sejm. Since doctrinal principles must be included in the statute, together with a short history of the religion or the or- ganizational structure to which the association refers or from which it departs as a result of an inner schism or only an organizational split.

In the case of an original association, established by its founding group, a description of the history of es- tablishing the religious community is also required. Outside of official statistics, it is difficult to assess a certain number of reli- gious movements or spiritual communities which gain followers in Poland but do not seek to clarify their legal status. Therefore, it can be assumed that the variety of religious or quasi-religious groups in Poland some of them have gained legal personality as secular associations and foundations is much greater.

Moreover, we should also take into consideration those religious groups which do not have legal personality and have never applied for registration, despite actively recruit- ing new members and cultivating their own religious rituals. Most of them — es- pecially groups of foreign origin and only recently present in Poland as well as in the case of native groups with short history — conduct ongoing proselytizing ac- tivity in order to gain new followers. They are also the most familiar and best-known in Polish society.

The religious mosaic of registered churches and religious associations clas- sified according to the tradition they belong to, or only refer to, is the following in alphabetical order : 1. Not explicitly embedded in traditional religions — From the perspective of the origins, we can distinguish between two catego- ries: native and imported.

The native ones were established by Poles and are of a local nature. Apart from schismatic communities, four of them refer to ancient beliefs of the Slavs. The rest impart a new interpretative and worship formula to the borrowings from the Christian tradition. In the majesty of the law they were given the status of official denominations as well as — resulting from this fact — privi- leges, including economic ones It seems that in our times not without reason we should consider individual spiritual quests, but also a specific phenomenon of organizational revival.

It is made evident by the popularity of new proselytizing religious communities offer- ing their followers a different lifestyle from their former one. Leaving for a reli- gion which is culturally unfamiliar, demanding a radical redefinition of the former lifestyle e.

In the latter case two factors — it seems — may play a crucial role. The first is the motif of being submissive to the agitating person. The second can be the conviction of the possibility of fulfilling additional needs. The growing attractiveness of Pentecostal movements is justified by their offer, which guarantees healing. The founders of these movements are also motivated more by earthly rather than spiritual matters.

New religious movements, after registration classified as religious associa- tions set in the Christian tradition, differ from the Roman Catholic Church by: organizational structure, in general they lack consecrated priests often in favour of being chosen on a rotational basis ; the simplification of liturgy; Biblical stud- ies in the community; the baptism of adults; and the negation of the pontificate and attributes of the Pope; as well as by the doctrinal principles in detail or gen- erally.

Religious communities are led by: leaders, presbyters, abbots, bishops, starosts, senior priests, chairpersons, superiors, presidents, shepherds, heads, au- ditors, assistants, rectors. In some associations, also women serve these functions. Sometimes they are the initiators and founders of new communities. The initial phase of development of each religious group 11 The privileges concern among other things tax exemption due to income from non-business activity as well as keeping tax records and paying customs duties for imported goods — cf.

Ustawa z dn. Some researchers reserve the contemporary dividing line of newness for groups which have appeared since World War II, while others put that time back to the 19th century, especially with regard to proselytizing religious denominations, whose majority of members are converters and not followers from birth.

New religious movements are — literally — newly established formed reli- gious communities associations. In bureaucratized state systems, it takes place by administrative means, according to legislative rules in effect in a given country. New movements also include communities coming into existence and remaining within mother churches.

Characteristic features which allow us to classify those seemingly different religious movements within one semantic category are: 1. The charismatic personality of the spiritual leader. Conversion of an adult person denoting: spiritual transformation — from lack of faith to faith; converting from one denomination to another; a breakthrough in the life of a believer — spiritual transformation within the same confession.

Following the master — in person or his or her teachings, resulting in the change of social standing, the redefinition of identity, the sense of life and lifestyle. Separatism and exclusivism usually closed groups, giving their followers a sense of identity and existential security — it is not easy to join them and it is difficult to resign from being their member. Doctrinal fundamentalism, the perfectionism of the worship, moral rigor- ism as well as institutional dependence — obedience and submission to the superiors.

Illuminism and elitism the conviction of members of the movement of their unique relation with variously defined God, regarding yourself as the chosen one as well as orthodox in the sphere of faith and practices.

Collectivism of life organising and spending time together, openness about personal life, public sharing of experiences, mutual control, finan- cial help given to the community as well as regarding it as the basic group of reference and identification.

Ostracism, rejection, tension, lack of social acceptance. In Poland it is Radio Maryja and the television channel Trwam. Legally granted permission for the plu- ralism of outlook on life does not translate into the unconditional acceptance of all religious communities present within the territory of Poland, without exceptions.

The descriptions of sects in the media serve the function of a bugbear, a peculiar moral panic used also to distract our attention from other matters. In the colloquial and media discourse, more fre- quently than in scientific and legal, judgements are passed, often unequivocal, stereotypes are referred to more willingly and stigmas are used.

The media and authorities performing on their public stage manipulate emotions and legitimize or deprecate reality, including the religious one, by labelling. Recipients often un- questioningly succumb to those suggestions.

Propagated ideas need to be made credible in order to achieve social acceptance and gain followers. In the s in Poland the Unification movement provided financial support to the Solidarity movement.

The Moons visited Poland several times, together or separately, they always solemnly welcomed their guests in the crowded halls of fine hotels. New religious movements are established not outside the structures of tradi- tional or official Churches or denominations, but also on their fringes or even within them.

Various brotherhoods, communities, movements, sodalities, socie- ties and associations have evolved in the Catholic Church for centuries.

After the Second Vatican Council, that is, since the mids, new Catholic movements have developed rapidly. This springtime also reached diocesan and parish churches in Poland. Sociologists of religion Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge divide new religious movements from the perspective of social tension they cause in the environment. According to them, Catholic movements in societies where Catholicism is the dominant religion create slight tension and are more socially approved and accepted than religious movements referring to a tradition different from the Catholic one.

Communities of lay Catholics are often on the fringes of the institutional Church, also from the point of view of their place.

Experiencing faith, which they propagate, is not always in accordance with the official teachings of the Vatican. There are many borrowings from Protestantism. Part of the parish clergy treats this form of religious activity of the laity with reserve. From time to time tensions arise be- tween lay leaders and spiritual guardians over matters of competence, personality or doctrine. The movements prefer a specific form of non-religious Christianity.

Many groups meet outside the church walls, in secular halls rented by the hour, without clergymen. In the s four communities abandoned the Church and were registered as autonomic religious associations confer footnote The direct cause of group abandonments was the escalating conflict between the diocesan bishop and the lay community animator, at the time still within the Church. The bishops of a few dioceses protested against, according to them, an erroneous interpretation of the dogmas and forms of worship.

The refusal to obey caused excommunication of the leaders and their followers. Schism occurred, the people gathered around the lay leaders abandoned the primal religious structure and established autonomic religious associations. The believers of schismatic communities, as well as religious movements, which have settled in Poland since mostly have Christian origins. For them religion is first and foremost an inner experience and not a routine repetition of an inherited tradition.

New religious movements also draw entities who are not very practical. The union — according to believers — represents the oldest, primeval faith of the Poles — the religion of Slavic ancestors.

They consider the birth and death of an entity as necessary to the constant development of the human species and mankind. The nation, potentially immortal in its essence, is constantly reviving. Offspring and creative activities can ensure immortality to human beings. To them knowledge, strength, intellect, health, righteousness, fit- ness, responsibility, vitality, dignity, reliability and perseverance are values.

They pursue greatness, power, beauty, truth and kindness. They fight ignorance, weak- ness, illness and stupidity. They condemn cowardice, betrayal, addiction, brawl- ing, submissiveness, humbleness, passivity. A sacrifice of honey and beer is made on the altar, combined with worship and meditation. Personal celebrations include: birthday, first haircut, nuptials and funerals.

The union is in favour of cremation. The followers of the Polish Native Faith understand God as cosmic force present in the entire universe pantheism ; they reject the concept of immortality after death a human being is immortal through his or her achievements and bio- logical continuity — offspring ; they derive their own origin from old-Slavic spir- ituality based on Aryan culture; they propagate nationalistic ideas — they recognize the subjectivity of the nation. The symbols of the Polish Native Faith are a golden sun in the blue sky and the black Greek cross with bent legs the so-called swastika — an old-Aryan symbol of fire and fertility.

Christianity was brutally introduced and broke the bond between people and nature. A lot of people then lost their lives, for example, female herbalists and oracles were burned at the stake as witches. We have also lost natural medicine. We want Poland to return to its past spirituality.

We wish to be the voice of our spiritual roots, which oblige us to fight for our Nation and our Race. The fight of a few against a multitude — we are not discouraged by the order of battle, because we fulfil our destiny.

We stand in defence of eternal values, inherent in our Slavic and Indo-European blood. It is our deepest conviction that a human being without identity stops being Human. We are Aryans and we carry an Aryan message on our banners — to be noble. This nobility is a dying virtue in the modern world overcome by consecutive mutations of the spiritual cancer. The Greek arete or the Roman virtus make up the founda- tions of our civilization and culture of once great Indo-Europe. The threatened land of our ancestors nowadays needs, more than ever, staunch-hearted and fear- less warriors.

Just like Vedic Kshatriyas they will lead through death and ruins to the birth of new Lauds. We want their ethos to direct our life. We want to use the above values first and foremost in the battle of Poland, but also later in the ultimate fight for Slavia and then for the whole Arya. The creative activity in a spirit of the above principles was an inspiration for us to publish the magazine Odala, which we have already done since Odala is: not a forum of national lament, but the voice of the young and strong, trusting in victory; not the suicidal scream of a frustrated person but the loud battle cry of a berserker; not the theatre of sick hate, but the healthy reaction of ethnic self-defence.

Just like the Pentecostals, they acknowledge the gifts of the Holy Spirit wisdom, interpretation of tongues, healing, prophecy. Andrzej Stawikowski, the pastor of the Centre, a car mechanic by profession, is the leader of the group, originally a renewal one and at present an ex-Catholic one. The ideological message is a renewal in the Holy Spirit as well as a reconciliation with Jesus Christ.

They reject papal infallibility, the doctrine of Purgatory, the Catholic formula of confession, the Marian devotion and the veneration of saints as well as the idea of their intercession. The Holy Bible is regarded by them as the word of God; they live by Biblical rules; following the example of the disciples of Jesus — they heal. They reject the Tradition of the Catholic Church. They pray spontaneously, in tongues, they shout their worship by loudly praising God, they dance.

They confess their sins only to God. They pray for healing, conversions, and closing discos, which they consider a source of evil and sin. The aim of the Church is to preach the Gospel, teach the Word of God as well as spread Christian ideas.

We wanted to disband. But we started pray- ing fervently to the Holy Spirit and suddenly within two months several dozen people joined us — recalls Andrzej. With every month we gained followers. With time the group grew to more than believers.

Andrzej is 30 years old. Fellow believers hold him in deep respect, many share their secrets with him and tell him about their problems. He prayed to God for conversion and Lord entrusted our group to him — year-old Irena says about Andrzej.

What he says is in step with the Bible, simple and clear. Andrzej converted 13 years ago. Back then he experienced a revelation that seven years later he would create a prayer group. In the Renewal employed him full-time. My reli- gious views have always differed from the Catholic doctrine, but at the beginning neither the members of the Renewal, nor the priests who managed it, knew about it — says Andrzej Sta- wikowski. Initially, our community also prayed to them. But our aim was and is the renewal in the Holy Spirit as well as the reconciliation with Jesus Christ.

The first warning of a split appeared more than a year ago. The community met more often outside the church walls. Groups which gathered in private homes for common prayer and studying the Holy Bible gained more people. Bishop Teofil Wilecki also demanded that the present leaders left the congregation and that the members of the Renewal stopped meeting in home groups.

The money collected during the meetings were to be given to the Church. The Church was also to take over the land that the members of the community had already bought in order to build a training centre.

Secondly, in the authoritative personality of a secular leader convinced of the uniqueness of his relation with God and having the charismatic gifts of healing, prophecy, the gift of tongues — glossolalia. Com- petence increased by qualities attributed to priests is often a hotbed of issues con- cerning jurisdiction.

The economic motive can be found in their ideological declarations. This association is open to people who believe in human goodness, supporting one another, seeking spiritual and material help in overcoming life dif- ficulties with dignity. Poor standards of living make people search for remedial measures.

One of them was the registration of a group of friends as a religious association which would not only provide needful people with spiritual but also with financial support. The asso- ciation set up a company to raise money for charity. A teacher takes care of finan- cial and legal assistance. The aim of the association is the concern for the goodness of a human being and help in assuring mutual kindness between people. The basic doctrinal assumption of the association is to regard a human being as the greatest value and the faith that you can and should inspire enormous goodness in people, often undisclosed.

Although it did not specify the nature of its religious practices, the form of its church services, sym- bols or ritual texts, it was registered as a religious association in by the De- partment for Denominations of the Ministry of the Interior and Administration. In the same year on the initiative of Marek J. The believers declare faith in one God who is the driving force of everything.

God, by creating the world, gave it the ability to exist independently. The world is de- veloping and changing by itself, without divine intervention, but according to the laws created by God. All laws of nature are divine laws. A human being, by break- ing them, acts against God. Acting to the detriment of nature turns against a human being. God is present in everything that exists in the universe, in every kind of energy and matter.

He is neither good nor evil, but exists in absolute terms and everything is subject to His laws. If you accept these rules and commit yourself to abide by them, you become a believer deserving friendship, respect and financial help. The association does not criticize its believers for their views and behaviour, nor does it impose on them any forms of religious worship.

Its area of activity and regis- tered office is in Warsaw. The former, unofficial activity was based on holding conversations and finding compromise in contentious issues, helping those in need as well as studying religious texts. The community obliges the believers to look after animals and the planet we live on as well as the whole Galaxy.

It allows for a subjective interpretation of the Bible as a form of dialogue with God. The main rules you need to obey stated in the imperative form are: 1 Never object to the Ten Commandments; 2 Help the poor and those in need; 3 Read religious texts; 4 Never use a weapon; 5 Shun violence; 6 Show respect to every being; 7 Ac- tively participate in the discussions of the Polish Church of Dialogue; 8 Accumu- late your wealth by any legal means growing rich is the basic duty fulfilled to- wards God by the believers.

In their activity, they aim to help the poor and those in need. When the Parish Council notices signs on Earth and in the heavens given by God, the believers will set off to search for the poor and those in need. Its essence is allowing not only for the prayers for health, but also for financial well-being, success. God — as they preach — gives everything, if you can ask Him for health, so for preventing poverty as well. The community, which consists of about 50 members, is active in Warsaw, where it meets in rented halls.

It does missionary work in penal institutions, runs Biblical courses and publishes texts. When they decided to systematize their search and give it a scien- tific foundation, they discovered that their views coincide with both the reflections of Ionic philosophers of nature as well as — and first of all — with the concepts of Spinoza pantheistic doctrine.

We realized that the system we have created per- fectly satisfies our common need for existence on a spiritual level, through which it gains an entirely new dimension — it becomes our Faith. In documents submitted to the Department for Denominations of the Ministry of the Interior and Admin- istration there is no information on the content of those theses. The Church was registered in For practising this religion, the notions of Uniting Jednoczenie and Consolation Pociecha have a crucial meaning.

Uniting is a form of meetings between the believers, which take place on Friday afternoons, on Saturdays before noon, on Sunday afternoons and whenever possible on public holidays. Uniting takes place as far outdoors as possible, in close contact with nature.

If the meeting takes place inside, an oak leaf carved in wood symbol- izes the presence of nature. Another element of the religious practice is Consola- tion.

It is a form of individual interactions between two believers. Consolation is given by believers who emanate the invigorating Pneuma. The highest authority is the General Assembly of Believers, while the executive body is the Church Council.

The Council includes a chairman, a secretary and a treasurer, all on equal terms. The mechanism of emerging new religious movements is complex. The main role is played by the creator of the new group, or only a group that is eclectic, copying or duplicating former concepts or ideas. A creative mind itself is not enough, though, for the idea to live its own life, become a challenge and call for others. A religious organization is established when the ideas presented by the creator founder find followers and are so attractive that they reject their former faith and lifestyle.

To a sociologist of religion this moment is cognitively the most intriguing and unique. How does it happen that ideas often contrary to the ones recognized so far become a guideline to a new life, new faith and sometimes a new concept of God from that moment on?

For that situation to happen there should be specific feedback, the clash of two intentional needs: a creative leader and a spiritual seeker. The individuality of the relation is ensured by those who solicit for believ- ers, initially the founders themselves, but with time also specialized services mis- sionaries, apostles, preachers, teachers, etc.

Movements referring to the cult of Satan cause the most controversy and fear. The media inform about their presence and the ravages they create in the material world desecrations of cemeteries and in the psyche aggression, killings, suicides.

The new religious movements established by Poles and directed to them which were presented in this text as examples illustrate the mosaic of needs pre- sent in our society. References to pre-Slavic beliefs make us realize that the feel- ing of national pride of centuries-old identity does not allow a certain group of people to accept a tradition historically alien to the Slavs.

A meeting with Protestant churches may lead to rejecting Catholicism and founding — as a sign of protest — your own religious community. The search for the Absolute may lead to finding it by contrast with Christianity.

Obviously new religious movements should not be treated in terms of a threat to the Church, only their presence can encourage the activity of the Church, its openness to the intellectual and spiritual needs of the believers.

The signs of the pluralisation of religious life in Poland referred to in this text do not contradict whatsoever the real and statistically documented domination of Catholicism, which in the public consciousness appears as an internally consistent monolith.

Nowe ruchy religijne. Bonowicz, W. Znak, 6. In: E. Barker ed. Nowe ruchy religijne i parareligijne w Polsce. Dymarczyk, E. Gazeta Wyborcza. Warszawa: CHAT. Nowe ruchy religijne w zwierciadle socjologii. Lublin: UMCS. Churches and Religious Associations in Poland. In: M. Hainz, G. Pickel, D. Pollack, M. The techfromzero. Moreover, we really admire your engagement with us to improve our website. Hence, you can send us ideas and suggestions for future development as we are dedicated to offering the best information.

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These apps let customers to edit, resize and use filters. Layout layout and structure. Movie applications. These apps can increase the best way your organization captures and generates movies.

Analytics engagement, information, and data around the audience. Down load Instagram applications to track the way in which your audience interacts as well as efficiency within your material. Desk of Contents for Instagram structure applicationsInstagram enhancing applicationInstagram movie editing applicationInstagram analytics appsApps for engagement on Instagram Reward: 14 time-conserving methods for Instagram potent consumers Find out the tricks Hootsuite employs to provide top-good quality articles.

Drugs information for patients. Read here. These apps permit customers to edit, resize and utilize filters. Format format and layout. Video instruments. These purposes can greatly enhance the way your organization captures and generates video clips.

Analytics engagement, info, and data over the audience. Obtain Instagram applications to trace the best way your audience interacts as well as the general performance of the articles. Table of Contents for Instagram layout applicationsInstagram enhancing applicationInstagram online video editing applicationInstagram analytics appsApps for engagement on Instagram Bonus: fourteen time-conserving tricks for Instagram impressive end users Find out the methods Hootsuite employs to make top-high-quality content.

Roo Casino offers the ability to play a wide variety of games, both table and video. At the same time, Roo Casino has created a high quality user experience that is well designed and easy to use. The mechanism of emerging new religious movements is complex. The main role is played by the creator of the new group, or only a group that is eclectic, copying or duplicating former concepts or ideas. A creative mind itself is not enough, though, for the idea to live its own life, become a challenge and call for others.

A religious organization is established when the ideas presented by the creator founder find followers and are so attractive that they reject their former faith and lifestyle. To a sociologist of religion this moment is cognitively the most intriguing and unique. How does it happen that ideas often contrary to the ones recognized so far become a guideline to a new life, new faith and sometimes a new concept of God from that moment on?

For that situation to happen there should be specific feedback, the clash of two intentional needs: a creative leader and a spiritual seeker. The individuality of the relation is ensured by those who solicit for believ- ers, initially the founders themselves, but with time also specialized services mis- sionaries, apostles, preachers, teachers, etc.

Movements referring to the cult of Satan cause the most controversy and fear. The media inform about their presence and the ravages they create in the material world desecrations of cemeteries and in the psyche aggression, killings, suicides.

The new religious movements established by Poles and directed to them which were presented in this text as examples illustrate the mosaic of needs pre- sent in our society. References to pre-Slavic beliefs make us realize that the feel- ing of national pride of centuries-old identity does not allow a certain group of people to accept a tradition historically alien to the Slavs.

A meeting with Protestant churches may lead to rejecting Catholicism and founding — as a sign of protest — your own religious community.

The search for the Absolute may lead to finding it by contrast with Christianity. Obviously new religious movements should not be treated in terms of a threat to the Church, only their presence can encourage the activity of the Church, its openness to the intellectual and spiritual needs of the believers. The signs of the pluralisation of religious life in Poland referred to in this text do not contradict whatsoever the real and statistically documented domination of Catholicism, which in the public consciousness appears as an internally consistent monolith.

Nowe ruchy religijne. Bonowicz, W. Znak, 6. In: E. Barker ed. Nowe ruchy religijne i parareligijne w Polsce. Dymarczyk, E. Gazeta Wyborcza. Warszawa: CHAT. Nowe ruchy religijne w zwierciadle socjologii. Lublin: UMCS. Churches and Religious Associations in Poland. In: M. Hainz, G. Pickel, D. Pollack, M. Firlit Hrsg. Springer VS. In: R. Ra- dzik, B. Szajkowski, A. Wysocki ed. Mazur, K. Mariawityzm w Polsce. Parkinson, C. London: Penguin. Pawluczuk, W. Zdanie, 1. Petrowa-Wasilewicz, A. Warszawa: KAW.

Prokopiuk, J. Poezja, Rybak, S. Warszawa: Agencja Wydawnicza CB. Simpson, S. Native Faith. Polish Neo-Paganism at the Brink of the 21st Century.

Warszawa: PWN. Stark, R. Teoria religii. Tokarczyk, A. Warszawa: K. Wiench, P. Nowi poganie. The Constitution of the Republic of Poland.

Polski nurt starokatolicyzmu. Internet source rodzimawiara. Like in other Western countries, it is currently no longer necessary for Brazilians interested in Buddhism to become a member of a well-defined religious community to study the teachings of the Buddha, follow Buddhist ethics, or become familiar with a spiritual practice formerly transmitted within hierarchal lines of sub- mission.

E-mail: usarski pucsp. Under these circumstances, researchers of Western Buddhism are well ad- vised to overcome their habitual focus on the institutional manifestations and iden- tifiable forms of membership.

However, from a sociological standpoint, there are good reasons to doubt whether the classical image of Buddhism as a relatively clear identifiable religious system really corre- sponds to the dynamics and configuration within the contemporary religious field. All this means that researchers of Western Buddhism including contempo- rary Buddhism in Brazil are challenged by an expanded empirical and theoretical horizon.

The following paragraphs deal with three elements of this spectrum. Firstly, the reader will find a succinct description of the market-niche Buddhism has conquered in Brazil. Next come observations about the process through which religious elements of Buddhist origin are transformed into commodifiable goods and services.

The final part gives some answers to the question of what the evo- lution of a market of Buddhist-connoted products means for institutionalized Bud- dhism in Brazil. The two interre- lated key-questions in this context are about a the social surroundings in which the production of religious goods and services are produced and offered and b the audiences that are addressed by the suppliers Stolz, In order to reduce complexion one can think of a continuum marked by two extreme ends.

One side alludes to Buddhist communities that produce religious goods and services for the usage of its members. In this case there is no or only a little distinction between producers and consumers.

Both instances are overlapping. In both cases the audience can be mixed: it is possible that goods and services produced and consumed inside a religious community attract clients from outside the religious community. It is also possible that a product or service on the free market makes sense for a member Buddhist community because the signifi- cance of and benefit from the acquired good or service is in harmony with his or her faith and the plausibility structure of the religious group this consumer is com- mitted to.

The shop offers a vast spectrum of religious articles such as books, CDs, Buddha-Statues and Malas that in the first place are relevant for the adherents but — since they can be ordered via the Internet — may also attract clients who has nothing to do with the Temple Mandala. The same is true for the firm, Dharma Books. However, DharmaBooks had no sin- gle volume in stock. Commercialization initiatives of Brazilian Bud- dhist entities which primarily but not exclusively address practitioners can also be found in terms of teaching or cultural activities of local Temples open for a general public.

A different type of commercialization initiatives of Brazilian Buddhists enti- ties consists of the supply of goods and services primarily designed for a non- Buddhist audience. One of his activities is directed to the business sector for which he offers talks on issues such as corporate communication, marketing, entrepreneurship or the labor market.

In some cases, the connection with Buddhism is radi- cally reduced to the enterprises name which means that visitors of institute such as Companhia Zen Companhia Zen…, s. The Spa Daissen, for exam- ple, offers courses on Zen-cuisine for those who are interested in combining the search for relaxation and exotic alimentation Cozinha Zen, , while the Pila- tes-instructors of the Bouddha-Spa enrich their western method through refer- ences to Oriental Philosophy and the implementation of Eastern Meditation and martial art-techniques Bouddha Spa, s.

Two studies are particularly useful in this context: firstly, the essay of Madhulika Banerjee, on Ayurvedic pharmaceuticals in the modern Market Banerjee, ; secondly, an article of Nurit Zaidman, Ofra Goldstein-Gidoni and Iris Nehemya on the process of introduction and packaging of spirituality for the religious mar- ket Zaidman, et.

For analytical reasons one can distinguish seven logically inter-related constit- uents of the process of transformation of Buddhism into commodities, that is, a ab- straction, b parceling, c rearrangement, d recontextualization, e packaging, f curriculization and e validation. The elements represent conceptual constructions in the sense of ideal-types. Empirically, this means that the elements are not neces- sarily found, neither in their pure form nor combined to a complete set.

Rather, some are more basic and might occur more frequently than others. Finally, the list does not suggest that the elements occur necessarily in a pre-defined sequence, although some of the elements are almost inseparably interconnected. Rephrasing this quotation one can state that the process of commercialization of religious products and services implies an emancipation of determined religious aspect from their original context.

In this process, the organic symbiosis between certain doctrines or practices and the embracing symbolic-system that gives the single elements its specific meanings does no longer matter. Once abstracted from its context, the elements assume an independent plau- sibility. However, when an interior designer places a Bud- dha in a specific environment he or she is not necessarily concerned with the reli- gious side.

Rather, the image of Buddha humanizes the space Fernandes, What specific aspect is isolated depends on the character of the busi- ness or service offered on the market. While a shop like the Bazar Kamakura Ba- zar Kamakura, s. This brings us to rearrangement. The most obvious issue here is holism.

Spirituality in general addresses the human being as a whole, bringing segments together that from a modern point of view are segmented or even contradictory towards each other Knoblauch, In opposition, alternative medicine and workplace spirituality defend an integrative perspective in which the dichotomy of body and mind or workplace and private life are overcome. The second principle refers to the arrange- ments through which these sets are offered on the market.

The offer was dedicated to the philosophy of promoting the success of an economical enterprise and the harmonious coexistence and collaboration of the employees. Clients interested in these issues could sign in for the whole course composed of 12 meetings approximately Brazilian Reais [November ] or for only one specific unit Brazilian Reais. One of the most evident indicators of the desire to let both product and producer appear in a posi- tive light consists in the attempt to downplay the religious origin of a commodity and to emphasize its secular character.

Ronald Z. There are only rules of conduct that lead to human satis- faction and to a harmonious affiliation of human beings. According to the resume he is not only a writer, but also an engineer, entrepreneur, lecturer and consultor Brito, s. The focus of this succinct comments lies in the ambiguity of effects caused by the process of marketization. The central point in this context is that the commodification of Buddhist con- noted goods and services represent a severe challenge for the Buddhists institu- tions and authorities active in the respective temples and centers.

In a highly di- versified religious field such as Brazil, any religious branch can only survive if it submits itself to the dynamics of competition. Kardecism, in terms of statistics the third most relevant religious tradition in the country and due to doctrines, such as reincarnation and karma, is probably the severest rival for institutionalized Bud- dhism.

With the absorption of Buddhist ideas and practices by independent pro- viders, the competition aggravates for two interrelated reasons. Firstly, the spec- trum of suppliers of religious products expands aggravating competition by the numerical increase of alternatives. This creates a very different situation compared with the past. None of these conditions are constitutive for the market. Banerjee, M. Contributions to Indian Sociology, 36 , Bauman, Z.

Liquid Modernity. Cambridge: Blackwell. Empresas do Brasil. Brito, C. Borup, J. Branding Buddha. Journal of Global Buddhism, 17 , Bouddha Spa s. Bowman, M. Social Compass, 46 2 , Carvalho, R. Consul- toria de Marketing. Cohen, E. Annual Review of Critical Psychology, 13, 1, Compahnia Zen. Consultoria em Qualidade de Vida s. Cozinha Zen , maio 3. Davie, G.

Believing without Belonging. Le cas de Liverpool. Archives des sciences sociales des religions, 81 , Social Compass, 37 4 , Fernandes, T. O Budismo no Brasil, Bodhisattva, 17 , Fine, M. Buddha in a Business Suit. Gelfer, J.

Journal of Marxism and Interdisciplinary Inquiry, 4, 1 , Gross, P. Die Multioptionsgesellschaft. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. Heine, S. S Introduction: Traditions and Transformations in Modern Buddhism. In: S. Heine, Ch. Prebish eds. Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press. Knoblauch, H. Fluide Religion: Eine Einleitung. In: D. Walthert eds. Theoretische und empirische Systematisierungen, Bielefeld: Transkript.

Miller, V. Lon- don: Continuum. Nirvana s. Pollack, D. Faber, F. Hager eds. Kultur- und Religionssoziologie heute, Possamai, A. Culture and Religion, 4, 1 , Soares, G. O biopoder na contemporaneidade. Sobre o Lama Padma Samten s. Social Compass 53 1 , Usarski, F. Historical overview and current trends. In: C. Dawson eds. The Brazilian Experience, Zaidman, N. Organization, 16 4 , However, until the 14th century, the presence of Islam in this part of Europe had been rather ran- dom and disorderly.

It was only after the Mongol state of Golden Horde became nominally Islamic in the 13th century its rulers started to profess Islam that contacts with Muslims intensified.

Lithuanian princes fought against the Golden Horde to prevent its in- vasions of Lithuanian lands, but already in the 14th century the first Muslims, i. E-mail: a. Nalborczyk in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for various reasons2. Some of them were brought as mercenaries to help the Lithuanians defend their territories from enemies. Troki area, it significantly increased the number of Tatars within Lithuanian borders Tyszkiewicz, 14ff; Borawski 6.

They fought mainly against the Teutonic Order Borawski, , , e. In addition to land they were also granted the right to practice their religion and erect mosques Borawski, 43ff: Tyszkie- wicz, ff. The number of Muslim settlers, both mercenaries and refugees, as well as prisoners of war, kept increasing during the whole of the 15th century, but it was the two subsequent centuries that saw the most significant influx of Muslims to Polish territories Tyszkiewicz, 15ff.

Some historical sources assess the number of Muslims in Poland at that time at 40, people. The ones who served in Tatar military units were granted fief and gained the status almost equal to the Polish- Lithuanian nobility, just as those who served at royal courts as interpreters and translators from oriental languages Borawski, There were also Tatars among city dwellers tradesmen, cart drivers, gardeners and servants on lordly estates Bohdanowicz, Chazbijewicz, Tyszkiewicz, 25ff. Their settlements centred around Vilnius Pol.

Wilno , Trakai, Hrodna Pol. Grodno and Nav- ahradak Pol. They fought in all major battles of the time4. The Con- stitution of 3 May finally granted them full political rights Bohdanowicz, Chazbijewicz, Tyszkiewicz, Sources say nothing about any major Christianization of Muslim Tatars.

At the same time, they kept the Arabic alphabet, which they used not only to write down Koran passages or prayers in Arabic5, but also for Polish texts, in combination with which it made a very unique kind of writing. They used this script for handwriting kitabs compilations of various texts: hadith, prayers, rituals, leg- ends , tefsirs passages of the Koran with a translation into Polish etc. When the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth lost its independence at the end of the 18th century, the majority of Tatars came under Russian authority.

Nalborczyk Around that time, other Muslims started coming to Poland. Apart from soldiers there were also merchants, craftsmen mainly bakers and confectioners and clerks among the new immigrants Tyszkiewicz, It was for them that Muslim cemeteries were founded in Warsaw, one of which is still open.

It is situated in Tatarska Street and is itself called the Tatar Cemetery7. World War I thinned the number of Tatars, the majority of whom were reset- tled deep in Russia.

Polish Muslims enjoyed full freedom of worship but they did not have their all- Polish organization. Before they were under the authority of the Mufti of Simferopol Crimea — head of the Taurida Muslim Spiritual Board Tyszkiewicz, , otherwise closed down after the Soviet army conquered Crimea in They were successful in their attempts.

However, it was only in that Islam was finally officially recognized by the Polish Parliament in the Act of 21 April , which defined the relationship between the State and the MZR see below 9. The Union was independent of any clerical or secular authorities, it gained legal entity. In , the Mosque Building Committee was formed in Warsaw, but even though it was given a piece of land in Ochota the mosque was never erected Polish-Lithuanian Tatars were also willing to serve in the Polish army in the interwar period.

The Tatar Uhlan Regiment was already formed in Armia Krajowa , in the Vilnius Area. The only three pre-war religious communities that remained within Polish lands were in Warsaw, Boho- niki and Kruszyniany. However, due to postwar migrations, the Islamic popu- lation was dispersed. They were mostly students from Arab countries, but also from Iran or Afghanistan. Nalborczyk Ever since the Polish borders were re-opened in , new waves of Muslim immigrants have made their home in Poland.

The majority of them are not migrant workers, but former students, mostly Arabs and their families. There are also political refugees among Mus- lims in Poland.

Next a sizeable group of refugees arrived from Chechnya, but many of them moved to Germany after receiving refu- gee status. There are also some recent refugees from Crimea, i.

We have no exact data on the number of Muslims living in Poland, as people are not asked about denomination in the national census. Estimated numbers differ de- pending on the source.